Lise Schools, Interpretive Planner, Indiana State Parks In the 1790s the American frontier began to push westward from the thirteen original colonies. The edge of the western frontier moved like a game of leapfrog. Settlers would claim the forested land and begin the arduous task of clearing it for crops. As those farms became established, the next wave of settlers would pass the first, moving the frontier border further west. Many of these first settlers in Ohio and Indiana territories were Revolutionary War veterans whom the new government paid in land in this cash-poor, but land-rich new country. As farmers cleared additional acreage in subsequent years, individual farms transitioned from subsistence to surplus. The need arose for mills to grind surplus grain, and for the means to transport finished flour from the frontier to markets in the east and south. Some farms had access to small hand-cranked mills. Horse-powered mills required a farmer to harness his horse to a horizontal pole attached to grindstones in the center of a circle. The horse walked in circles, turning the upper grindstone against the stationary lower stone, converting corn to cornmeal. The most common style of mill was water-powered created (see picture above) by damming a creek and creating a mill pond. The mill structure, located at the dam, would guide water from the pond through a narrow chute, turning a vertical wheel. A shaft attached to the wheel turned the grindstones. It was a technology that dated to 4000 B.C.E. or earlier. Water routes were the main highways for transporting grain, finished flour, and other commodities out of the frontier. Short-lived canal systems connected the midwest to the east coast. The financial and engineering challenges faced by canals led to their early demise. An alternative was to load barrels of flour, grain, and pork onto flatboats which were floated down creeks to larger tributaries. Once the flatboats reached the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, items could be shipped on steamboats to New Orleans, or continue the journey on flatboats (see picture above). The surplus of grain grew until farmers arriving at a mill with their grain would sometimes need to wait in line for days. Communities soon formed around early mills with an inn and tavern to provide sleeping accommodations, food, and beverage for the waiting farmers. Once their grain was ground and exchanged, farmers had cash. The general store sold needed goods from the east such as hardware and fabric. A blacksmith for shoeing horses, and a post office were other early businesses that surrounded a mill. One item in short supply at the edge of the frontier was labor. Milling was still a “bag and shoulder” process, unchanged from the 1500s, and requiring many strong backs. Up until this time, mill construction and operation were closely guarded secrets. In 1795, during the Industrial Revolution, inventor Oliver Evans (1755-1819) published his trade manual, The Young Mill-Wright’s and Miller’s Guide. This book set some standards of operation for mills. Evans writes, “He that studies and writes on improvements of the arts and sciences labors to the benefit of generations yet unborn …” Oliver Evans made the milling process more accessible to entrepreneurs. More importantly, Evans’s manual included a mechanized mill design that produced more flour, using half the labor of a traditional mill. While water still powered the mill’s grindstones, it also powered many other parts of the mill. Elevators, a continuous strap with attached buckets, lifted the grain from the ground floor to the top of the mill. Spouts sent the grain from the top floor to various processes or storage bins. Conveyors, using the principle of the Archimedes screw, moved flour horizontally through the mill. In addition to the mechanization, other adaptations were incorporated into mill design to increase productivity. For example: Height: Mills were several stories high to assist operations that relied on gravity. Windows: Due to extreme fire hazard from flour dust, lanterns, lamps, and torches were prohibited. Numerous tall windows brought natural light into the mill, extending the hours it could operate. Monitor: A raised center roof section provided additional light and ventilation. Stone Foundation: Stone foundations enabled the mill to withstand floods and the constant vibration of the mill machinery. Turbines: Beginning in 1830, horizontal turbines began to replace vertical waterwheels. Turbines could produce more power with a lower volume of water. Turbines were completely under water, allowing them to operate even when the mill pond surface was frozen. The arrival of the railroad signaled the end of reliance on river transport to get flour to urban markets. Rail spurs were often built adjacent to a mill for easy loading. In only a few decades, the frontier landscape of subsistence farms became a complex of agricultural business, and technology. Many of today’s idiomatic expressions were used in the milling industry. Some examples: 1. “a millstone around my neck” meaning an onerous burden. 2. “rule of thumb” derived from the miller testing the flour between his thumb and fingers. 3. “Show us your mettle.” meaning a person’s worth in skill and ability. This derived from the stone dresser’s need to “rough” the surfaces of millstones when they wore smooth. Stone fragments, or mettle, would become embedded under his skin. By showing his mettle, the dresser could prove that he had a lot of experience. While the milling of grain is an ancient process, the nineteenth century was a turning point in surplus grain production and mechanization of the milling process. This surplus led to improved roads and waterways for grain and flour distribution to distant markets. Sources: National Register of Historic Places Documentation From “Grain Mills of Indiana, Grain Milling in Indiana 1730-1940” Indiana Department of Natural Resources. Interpretive Guide to Mansfield Roller Mill. Mansfield Roller Mill Interpretive Plan, 2004, L. Schools
1 Comment
Norm
12/3/2022 06:14:17 pm
Another informative and enjoyable read. Thank you.
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